Source 1: Meyers, William K. “Pancho Villa and the Multinationals:
U.S. Mining Interests in Villista Mexico, 1913-15” Journal of Latin American
Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2 (May, 1991), pp. 339-336
Link: http://www.jstor.org/stable/157028
The career of Pancho Villa began
in during the two-pronged revolution to overthrow Porfirio Diaz, with him and
his Norteño
cavalry descending from the arid north and Emiliano Zapata coming up from the
verdent south with an army of campesinos, both intending to storm Mexico City.
With the ultimate failure of this revolution culminating in the 1913 assassination
of the new president Francisco Madero, Pancho Villa again took to the field to
rid his region of Mexican governments who would allow their country to be sold
piecemeal to foreign business interests. But, despite this attitude being the
bedrock of the Villista movement, strategic concessions had to be made during
the course of the war to ensure the day-to-day operation of certain economic
activities that required specially trained personnel like mining.
Pancho Villa’s revolutionary
activity proceeded, necessarily by his region’s proximity to the border, only
with tacit American support for his actions. The balance was particularly in
favor of the Americans when it came to heavy industry, as Americans had built
most of Mexico’s railways and operated almost all of their mineshafts. When
Villa captured several significant American-run shafts and their respective
towns, he found it difficult to keep the mines in operation without allowing
the Americans to have some degree of control over the external affairs of the
mine’s operation. This clearly contradicted the spirit of the revolution, but
Villa had to make the choice of all revolutionaries, between
ideological purity and the pragmatic success of his movement.
Mining’s fortunes had always
determined the overall economic health of Mexico’s north, as it provided jobs
and provided a reliable means of foreign exchange. But, for the revolutionary
movement, only the successful operation of the mines and export of their ore
meant more revenue to continue fighting. For Villa to succeed in the overall
struggle against foreign firms controlling the fate of Mexico, he needed to
curry their favor while simultaneously maintaining a consistent, revolutionary
popular platform for his troops. This meant convincing his thousands of
partisans to help restore railroad service to these mines so that they could
continue their export.
In the end, the situation or the
Villistas was never meant to last, as the Constitutional government fell into
disunity and civil war and Villa’s forces dissolved in the fighting. But on a
more basic level, global mineral prices were at their lowest point in decades
during 1913 and even in the absence of revolutionary turmoil, most firms were
liquidating their investments in Mexican mining anyway. In the end, it was a
lot of compromise and bloodshed that begat more compromise and bloodshed, while the American companies were subsidized by the Villista revolution during a time when, as a result of market forces, they would have ordinarily been tempted to abandon their investments.
Source 2: Gilbert, Dennis. “Emiliano Zapata: Textbook Hero” Mexican
Studies, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Winter 2003), pp. 127 – 159
Link: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/msem.2003.19.1.127
Emiliano Zapata is an official
national hero of Mexico, by an act of Mexican congress that mandated his name
be enshrined in gold script along the Wall of Honor in the legislature
building. April 10, the day of his death, is considered a statutory “Day of
National Mourning” during which speeches and memorials are commonplace public
spectacles. There are more streets that bear his name than all of his more
successful contemporaries (Villa, Madero, etc.) combined. The songs, books, poems, odes, articles,
ceremonies and other homages to his legacy are too voluminous to number,
including the largest equestrian statue in Latin America. At the time of his
death in 1919, nobody would have suspected that he might have such a mythic
status. He was known as the “Atilla of the South” in the halls of government, vilified in the public press
throughout his life, and on top of all of that had been on a steady losing
streak between 1915 and his death. What happened to promote him from a reviled rural terrorist
to the most celebrated revolutionary hero of Mexico’s history?
The important background for the
discussion of Zapata and the resurrection of his legacy is the relationship of
the heavily Latinized elite to those who are more visibly Aboriginal. The
literature and discourse of the time, generally penned by the elite, expressed
disgust and fear at the primitive, provincial ways of “the Indian” and devote
their intellectual energy to trying to find a way to integrate them into
“civilized life.” These biases drastically affected the way Zapata’s
contemporaries, who dismissed his political mission because they believed that
he wasn’t capable, as an “Indian”, of having anything serious political vision
outside of his immediate grievances. Despite his ignominy, he textbook history
would redeem him in the eyes of common students by giving his life a symbolic
importance in the overall narrative of Mexican history as it is taught.
The mood that emerged from the
decade of chaos and bloodshed that was the Mexican Civil War and the 8 years of
lesser, but nonetheless profound, political unrest was one that was looking for
a way to understand the last 20 years of its history. Public school textbooks,
while not a valuable historical resource in the way their editors intended,
give us insights into the process by which Zapata became a crucial figure in
understanding the goals of the initial revolution and the roles of others
within the revolutionary story.
The common explanation of Zapata in a textbook history is as follows: the charismatic leader of a peasant army, Emiliano Zapata
initially rose against Porfirio Diaz (despot) in support of Francisco
Madero (democrat), only to have his hopes dashed on the rocks by
Victoriano Huerta’s (traitor) coup that reignited the civil war. The
similarities to America’s national mythology (democratic rebellion against a
foreign-backed autocracy that risked betrayal [Benedict Arnold and the British Loyalist faction]) are worth noting, as the struggle for Latin American
national identity has often been contrasted with the constancy of America’s
national mythos. Zapata gave Mexico a figure to organize their national
consciousness around, despite the fact that the elite Mexicans of his era would
have been violently offended to have him representing their society’s values. Over time he was embellished by illustrators to have his now iconic oversized moustache and his dual bandoliers and became the symbol of the revival in agrarian social consciousness during the 1950s.